The mmWave technology is just one technology that 5G networks can use. Lancet Infect. COVID-19 disease caused by the infection of coronavirus strain SARS-CoV-2. The variant gambit: COVID-19s next move. Capone, S. et al. "One of the distinguishing features of norovirus is that it is highly contagious and transmissible, so just a few virus particles can cause someone to be sick," Gandhi told ABCNews.com. According to published literature, manufacturing of the Sinovac and Novavax vaccines involves extensive purification procedures86,101, suggesting that the antigenic contents of these products consists primarily of the proteins of the virus particle or the isolated spike trimer, respectively. Cai, Y. et al. Burki, T. K. Challenges in the rollout of COVID-19 vaccines worldwide. JCI Insight 4, e123158 (2019). The risk of immediate serious infection is thought to be very low. In most people, common cold symptoms usually peak within the first two to three days of infection, while the effects of Covid appear two to 14 days after exposure. https://doi.org/10.1007/82_2020_217 (2020). Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine. & Bijker, E. M. A guide to vaccinology: from basic principles to new developments. 5). A number of monoclonal antibodies were isolated from COVID-19 patients and used for antigenic characterization of the S trimer, including 3D structure determinations of complexes between S (or parts thereof) and antibody Fab fragments. CAS Twitter users slammed a new ad from Hershey's Canada featuring trans woman Fae Johnstone as the face of its "International Woman's Day" campaign. N. Engl. 122). 12, 372 (2021). Unmodified mRNA in LNPs constitutes a competitive technology for prophylactic vaccines. JAMA 325, 12411243 (2021). At 10.9 inches, the 4th-generation iPad Air boasts a larger screen than the iPad . However, the situation of COVID-19 outbreak is getting worse in other countries over the last few days, such as Italy, America and Spain . Article Nelson, J. et al. First identified in the Guangdong province in southern China, according to the. van Doremalen, N. et al. This pertains to many well-used licensed vaccines such as those against influenza, measles and rabies120. Acute allergic reactions to mRNA COVID-19 vaccines. Increasing evidence indicates that neutralizing antibodies are indeed a reliable correlate of protection5,6,7,8,9. Science 369, 77 (2020). Expert Rev. Winkler, E. S. et al. Nature 583, 290295 (2020). In Plotkins Vaccines 7th edn (eds Orenstein, W. A., Offit, P. A. All of these distinguishing features might provide clues to yet unresolved vaccine-specific determinants of immune responses, efficacy, and potentially adverse reactions. The viruses are circular in shape with spikes on the surface, which appear like a halo when the virus is viewed with a microscope. Virus-receptor interactions of glycosylated SARS-CoV-2 spike and human ACE2 receptor. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (2023), npj Vaccines (npj Vaccines) Although in vitro model studies with one of the current adenovirus vector vaccines (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19; Table1) have shown that S-coding transcripts dominate the transcription patterns, rare aberrant splicing or polyadenylation site usage were observed72. The authors declare no competing interests. [114] Preservation of the native trimeric pre-fusion conformation, in contrast, was observed in structural studies with formalin-inactivated virus93, suggesting that inactivation and/or purification procedures can influence the ratios of pre- and post-fusion conformations of S and thus the qualities of killed whole-virus vaccines. Rev. It has been confirmed that the recent outbreak and epidemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was caused by a new coronavirus that has been named SARS-CoV-2. McCoy, K. et al. Although corresponding data do not yet exist in the public domain for the other adenoviral vector vaccines, the problem of cellular impurities may be similar, because they all depend on the lysis of production cells for releasing the engineered vector particles (section Adenovirus-vector vaccines). Immunol. Some people infected with the coronavirus have mild COVID-19 illness, and others have no symptoms at all. Google Scholar. Zost, S. J. et al. Amanat, F. et al. b Schematic of a lipidnanoparticle (LNP) used for delivery of mRNA vaccines. Lancet 396, 887897 (2020). However, the authors discuss evidence of shedding of the cleaved S1 portion78, which has also been observed in model studies with unmodified S proteins compared to mutationally stabilized proteins18 (Fig. Several studies have been conducted to decide whether the chest X-ray and computed tomography (CT) scans of patients indicate COVID-19. This classification was based on the following: Detection of cases attributed to Omicron in multiple countries, including among those without travel history. Linares-Fernndez, S., Lacroix, C., Exposito, J.-Y. Do your part to the stop the spread of rumors by doing three easy things: Find trusted sources of information. Tumban, E. Lead SARS-CoV-2 candidate vaccines: expectations from phase III Trials and recommendations post-vaccine approval. Conformational dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 trimeric spike glycoprotein in complex with receptor ACE2 revealed by cryo-EM. Immunity 54, 12761289.e1276 (2021). Rossman, H. et al. FEMA helps the public distinguish between rumors and facts regarding the response to the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. 118, e2104241118 (2021). Evidence for antibody as a protective correlate for COVID-19 vaccines. 344, 77110 (2021). Nat. On one hand, it can stimulate genes that fight off infection or help cells survive damage, but on the other hand, it may provide extra targets that help the virus infect more cells. Cell 184, 18211835.e1816 (2021). There are open questions concerning the structure of S in the inactivated vaccines. J. Virol. 88) could not be found in the literature. d Trimeric post-fusion structure of S2, with the three dissociated S1 subunits, shaded in light colors. Distinguishing features of current COVID-19 vaccines: knowns and unknowns of antigen presentation and modes of action F. Heinz, K. Stiasny Published 16 August 2021 Biology NPJ Vaccines COVID-19 vaccines were developed with an unprecedented pace since the beginning of the pandemic. So far, no data are available that would allow a direct comparison of the various vaccines and their effectiveness against the different VOCs. 2). Voss, W. N. et al. Article npj Vaccines 2, 29 (2017). Dyer, O. Covid-19: Chinese vaccines may need changes to improve efficacy, admits official. Keech, C. et al. In addition, background expression of remaining adenoviral genes has been demonstrated in this as well as in other studies with human adenovirus-based vectors72,76. Lancet Infect. 8, 654866 (2021). PLoS ONE 7, e40385 (2012). The implementation of mass-vaccination against SARS-CoV-2: a systematic review of existing strategies and guidelines. 29 January 2023. Prevention of infection with the Beta, Gamma and Delta variants might be lower, although evidence indicates substantial protection from severe disease after two vaccinations110,112,113. Nat. ChAdOx1 and MVA based vaccine candidates against MERS-CoV elicit neutralising antibodies and cellular immune responses in mice. Reimer, J. M. et al. Even though the CT scan is more sensitive to COVID Pneumonia, Chest X-rays used can be for a possible preliminary classification, due to its prevalent usage as a primary diagnostic test. Top. Internet Explorer). Virus Res. The effect of residual Triton X-100 on structural stability and infection activity of adenovirus particles. The severe consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic have created a pressing need for vaccines that not only prevent serious disease but preferentially also transmission. Safety and efficacy of single-dose Ad26.COV2.S vaccine against Covid-19. Adenoviral vectors contain PAMPs that can be sensed by TLRs at the plasma membrane (TLR2 and TLR4) and the endosomally located TLR9 (reviewed in ref. In predynastic Egypt, Atum was a solar deity associated with the sun god Ra . 26, 14221427 (2020). Science 370, 1089 (2020). 1a)15. npj Vaccines 6, 104 (2021). Greinacher, A. et al. Zhang, J. et al. Tsiambas, E. et al. Vaccine 39, 21902200 (2021). Lancet 397, 18191819 (2021). In the course of cellular SARS-CoV-2 infection (Fig. CrossRef Google Scholar 4 Baker, MA, Sands, KE, Huang, SS, et al. Alharbi, N. K. et al. Commun. The trigger comprises binding of RBD to ACE2 and a further proteolytic cleavage by cellular proteases (in addition to the furin cleavage between S1 and S2) at the so-called S2 site, resulting in the removal of a small sequence element and the exposure of the fusion peptide at the N-terminus of S2 (Fig. Cagigi, A. Evidence for increased breakthrough rates of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern in BNT162b2-mRNA-vaccinated individuals. The unifying feature of all current adenovirus-vaccine vectors is the replacement of one of the early adenoviral genes (E1) for the full-length SARS-Cov-2 S gene in the adenoviral DNA (Fig. Impact of ribosome activity on SARS-CoV-2 LNPbased mRNA vaccines. After vaccination with mRNA vaccines, rare events of anaphylactic shock above the average incidence in the population have been reported, largely in individuals with a history of allergy123,124. This complex artificial sequence element may lead to some inhomogeneity in proteolytic processing and impairment of correct formation of the S N-terminus during biosynthesis, as recently shown in comparative model studies with similar constructs19. The potency of these antibodies depends on high-affinity interactions with specific parts of the complex three-dimensional structure of the spike in a native conformation10,11. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China . It was suggested that the acquisition of the furin-cleavage site in the SARS-CoV-2 S protein was essential for zoonotic transfer to humans. Recently, data from a phase 3 clinical trial became available, showing a relatively low efficacy of 47% at preventing disease (https://www.curevac.com/en/2021/06/16/curevac-provides-update-on-phase-2b-3-trial-of-first-generation-covid-19-vaccine-candidate-cvncov/), well below the efficacies reported for the BionTech-Pfizer and Moderna vaccines46,47 and below the requirement of at least 50% efficacy proposed by WHO (https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/considerations-for-the-assessment-of-covid-19-vaccines-for-listing-by-who). Infect Cont Hosp Epidemiol 2022; 43: 12 - 25. (Image credit: Daedalean) Daedalean is looking to get its AI certified with both the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) and EASA (European Union Aviation Safety Agency . Wall, E. C. et al. Adv. Lancet 396, 479488 (2020). classical inactivated whole-virus and innovative subunit vaccines, which contain S in different forms and combinations with adjuvants (Sections: Protein-based vaccinesgeneral, Inactivated vaccines, Subunit vaccines). Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03777-9 (2021). Head-to-head comparisons of vaccinated cohorts will be especially insightful, considering the profound differences of antigen presentation and principles of action of current COVID-19 vaccines. Ella, R. et al. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) / Feature stories; COVID feature stories. Assessing antigen structural integrity through glycosylation analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 viral spike. Genome Med. Solar deities have been integral in the development of cultures across the world. containing the mutation D614G in S) may be more stable95,96 and therefore could serve as an improved substrate for the production of inactivated vaccines. Details of the engineered leader sequence in the ChAdOX1-S vaccine are difficult to track, but likely comprise 32 to 34 amino acids of tPA (according to a document of the European Medicines Agency assessing thrombotic post-vaccination events, EMA/205598/2021) and may contain a P to A mutation at position 22 to improve processing by signal peptidase80. Teijaro, J. R. & Farber, D. L. COVID-19 vaccines: modes of immune activation and future challenges. So far, results of phase III clinical efficacy trials were reported and published for a single subunit vaccine only98, which is manufactured by the company Novavax (NVX-CoV2373) (Table1)98,99 and is still in a stage before regulatory approval100. Similar to mRNA vaccines, adenovirus vector vaccines are intended to result in the production of native S proteins from a specific mRNA in cells of the vaccinee (Figs. Med. The World Health Organization (WHO) has increased the assessment of the risk of spread and the risk of impact of COVID-19 to very high at a global level . Finn, T. M. & Egan, W. Vaccine Additives and Manufacturing Residuals in Vaccines Licensed in the United States. The SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein biosynthesis, structure, function, and antigenicity: implications for the design of spike-based vaccine immunogens. They all proved to exceed initial hopes and maximal expectations of 50 % protection143,144, displaying efficacies in preventing clinical disease of more than 90% in certain instances. Science 372, 525 (2021). Trends Biochem. However, there may be important clues in the history and the examination that can help differentiate the two. Nature 586, 578582 (2020). Microbiol. A comprehensive review of the global efforts on COVID-19 vaccine development. Brouwer, P. J. M. et al. Given the same antigenic difference of all vaccines relative to VOCs, the most important parameter determining cross-protection may be the quantity of neutralizing antibodies and relevant cellular immune reactivity at the time of infection. Li X, et al. Haas, E. J. et al. Dis. Sci. PubMedGoogle Scholar. Zhao, P. et al. Release 217, 345351 (2015). Article One of the constituents discussed as being causally linked to anaphylaxis is polyethylene glycol (PEG), which is used in the formulation of LNPs that protect the RNA and facilitate its transfer into cells (section mRNA vaccines). Distinguishing viral pneumonia from bacterial pneumonia is difficult in the community. These vaccines are now used worldwide for mass immunization programs, and data on vaccine efficacies justify the hope that vaccination can indeed be the main instrument for preventing serious disease and death, and more generally for combating the pandemic1,2,3,4. Hopefully, more details will become available in the near future. The amount of impurities depends on the purification steps applied in the manufacturing process. The research team ran two studies, enlisting 1700 adults. Mol. Cell 183, 15201535.e1514 (2020). This means that, unlike in humans and other mammals, the genetic material for SARS-CoV-2 is encoded in ribonucleic acid (RNA). And like other coronaviruses that infect people, the new coronavirus causes respiratory disease, among other symptoms. 23, 14561464 (2015). Pinto, D. et al. These data can serve as an indirect measure for the structural integrity of S in the vaccines and the quality of B cell immune responses. Khoury, D. S. et al. Rev. 7, 748756 (2021). Walls, A. C. et al. Vogel, A. The viral RNA is sneaky: its features cause the protein synthesis . Thess, A. et al. It has been speculated that pre-existing PEG antibodies might be involved in these allergic events124. Details of purification processes used for the manufacturing of this vaccine are not available in published literature. 2c)22,23,24. Vaccines 9, 453 (2021). Encapsulating the RNA genome is the viral envelope (teal . Structures and distributions of SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins on intact virions. Duan, L. et al. Pardi, N., Hogan, M. J., Porter, F. W. & Weissman, D. mRNA vaccinesa new era in vaccinology. Except for mRNA vaccines, different eukaryotic cell cultures are used in the production of current COVID-19 vaccines (see sections Biosynthesis and key properties of the spike protein and Vaccine-specific differences of S-antigen structure and presentation and Table1). Effects of pre-existing and vaccination-induced immunity against the vector are a special feature of adenovirus vector vaccines. 2ac)20,21. SPsignal peptide; SRPsignal recognition particle; tPAtissue plasminogen activator; ERendoplasmic reticulum; C-terC terminus; N-terN terminus. The first category consists of mRNA and adenoviral vector vaccines (herein referred to as genetic vaccines, sections: Genetic vaccinesgeneral, mRNA vaccines, Adenovirus-vector vaccines), both of which do not contain the spike protein but provide genetic information for its biosynthesis in body cells of the vaccinee. COVID-19 and the flu have many symptoms in common, including: Fever Cough Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing Tiredness Sore throat Runny or stuffy nose Muscle aches Headache Nausea or vomiting, but this is more common in children than in adults The signs and symptoms of both diseases can range from no symptoms to mild or severe symptoms. and K.S. As outlined in the preceding sections, substantial differences appear to exist among current vaccines that can affect the conformation of S and its presentation to the immune system. One of Johnson's distinguishing features is his long-standing relationship with the Chicago Teachers Union. Baden, L. R. et al. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Luckily, Apple is known for its uncompromising screen standards, and the new iPad and iPad Air are no different. In principle, all current vaccines are affected similarly by VOCs, because they are all based on original wild-type strains from the early phase of the pandemic (see Table1) and therefore their S protein sequences differ from those of VOCs to the same degrees. In addition, the viral DNA itself can be sensed after endosomal rupture by cytosolic DNA sensors such as cGAS and the inflammasome, resulting in downstream signaling cascades for producing antiviral factors such as type I interferons41. 1,2 However, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has also demonstrated distinct clinical characteristics, such as anosmia and hypogeusia. Rogers, T. F. et al. 17, 261279 (2018). A. The domains were colored according to reference.20. Earle, K. A. et al. ERendoplasmic reticulum; ERGICendoplasmic reticulum Golgi intermediate compartment; TGNTrans Golgi Network; RNPRibonucleoprotein; Viral proteins: Sspike, Mmembrane; Eenvelope; Nnucleoprotein. The vaccine produced by Bharat is indeed based on a seed virus containing this mutation97 (Table1). The coronavirus at the root of COVID-19 is the newest known member of this family. Hodgson, S. H. et al. Control. 7, 512533 (2021). Vaccine 35, 37803788 (2017). Our case report highlights the difficulty of distinguishing SARS-CoV-2 infection in the context of PAP, as the chest CT features are similar. The production process of vaccine mRNAs involves the cloning of the corresponding sequence into a plasmid DNA containing a DNA-dependent RNA-polymerase promoter. Article Suryadevara, N. et al. & Stiasny, K. Profiles of current COVID-19 vaccines. Johnson's approach to campaigning provides an additional reason for concern. It is part of the unknowns of current COVID-19 adenovirus vector vaccines, how the patterns of background-vector DNA and protein expression look like after vaccination and whether immune reactions to such proteins are induced. Nature 592, 283289 (2021). Dis. The different classes of currently available COVID-19 vaccines exhibit fundamental differences with respect to their modes of action and the ways by which the spike antigen is presented to the immune system. Hasanpourghadi, M., Novikov, M. & Ertl, H. C. J. COVID-19 vaccines based on adenovirus vectors. 11, 3618 (2020). coronavirus, any virus belonging to the family Coronaviridae. Nat. The most striking difference is that COVID-19 can cause a loss of sense and smell. Both constructs include the two stabilizing mutations in S2 (K986P and V987P) that were shown to prevent the conformational change of the pre-fusion into the post-fusion structure of S (section Introduction and Fig. Some manufacturers have therefore introduced stabilizing mutations that are intended to prevent inadvertent structural conversion of the labile S protein. Google Scholar. Email COVID19@michigan.gov. N. Engl. Both of these technologies have already been applied successfully to the production of vaccines against other viral diseases84. Another BPL-inactivated whole-virus vaccine in development (by the European company Valneva) makes use of Alum in combination with CpG to induce preferentially a desired Th1 response138, and a similar effect has been attributed to the Matrix-MTM adjuvant used in the Novavax subunit vaccine99,101,102. COVID-19, short for "coronavirus disease 2019," is caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Adenovirus 5 is used in the CanSino vaccine and the second dose of Gamaleya vaccines (section Adenovirus-vector vaccines and Table1). Hum. The structures were generated with PyMol, using protein data bank (PDB) files 7KRR and 7KRS96 for the pre-fusion forms, 6XRA for the post-fusion form25. Sometimes coronaviruses that infect animals can evolve and make people sick and become a new human coronavirus. Details of manufacturing processes may differ between the companies, and subtle product-specific variations of RNA sequences were recently confirmed by comparative analyses of RNA extracted from original vials of the two vaccines (https://github.com/NAalytics/Assemblies-of-putative-SARS-CoV2-spike-encoding-mRNA-sequences-for-vaccines-BNT-162b2-and-mRNA-1273/blob/main/Assemblies%20of%20putative%20SARS-CoV2-spike-encoding%20mRNA%20sequences%20for%20vaccines%20BNT-162b2%20and%20mRNA-1273.docx.pdf). Greinacher, A. et al. PubMed 21, 950961 (2021). Fan, X., Cao, D., Kong, L. & Zhang, X. Cryo-EM analysis of the post-fusion structure of the SARS-CoV spike glycoprotein. Baldo, A., Leunda, A., Willemarck, N. & Pauwels, K. Environmental risk assessment of recombinant viral vector vaccines against SARS-Cov-2. The loss of the E1 gene abolishes replication competence of the vector. et al. There is indirect evidence that virus strains having emerged later in the pandemic (e.g. Adv. Cai, Y. et al. Neutralizing activity was also observed for antibodies against S2, but the potency was lower than of those against S127. The findings of the MIT team suggest that interferon's potential role in fighting Covid-19 may be complex. We also address the grey matter of additional variables, such as ill-defined downstream production processes and purity of vaccines as well as differences in triggering sensors of innate immunity. The signal sequence is cleaved off by signal peptidase attached to the inner ER membrane, generating the final N-terminus of the viral spike protein (14-QCVNL). Efficient formation of such antibodies by B cells requires helper functions of CD4 T cells that are specifically stimulated by peptides derived from the same antigen in complex with MHCII molecules. Corresponding studies are in progress (Com-Cov study: Oxdorf-AstraZeneca and BionTech-Pfizer, launched in February132). J. Front. 1a), the S protein is synthesized from one of the viral subgenomic mRNAs and co-translationally transported into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by the use of a signal sequence at its N-terminus, comprising residues 1 to 13 of its total 1273 amino acids14. Variations include (but are not limited to) the type of adenovirus used as a vector, genetic modifications of the vector, the cell lines used for vaccine production, procedures for purification, and the specific design of the gene for expressing S (Table1). To help spearhead significant victories . Sensors in the cytoplasm, such as retinoic-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and melanoma differentiation-associated antigen 5 (MDA-5) recognize preferentially dsRNA, also leading to stimulation of type I IFN secretion134,135. c Monomeric S protein of the pre-fusion spike with the RBD in red and NTD in gold, as well as the following structural details: The two stabilizing prolines (2P) are shown in pink, the FP in orange. ; Approval of final manuscript: F.X.H. https://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/detail.jsf?docId=WO2018215766. Both vaccines use aluminum hydroxide as an adjuvant. While these efforts resulted in successful classification systems, the design of a portable and cost-effective COVID-19 diagnosis system has not been addressed yet. Vaccine 39, 865867 (2021). Immunol. This enormous progress was achieved with fundamentally different vaccine technologies used in parallel. 27, 10551061 (2021). Science 372, 466 (2021). Brun, J. et al. The vaccine thus presents the correctly folded immunogen in essentially pure form and in combination with a potent adjuvant. Mapping neutralizing and immunodominant sites on the SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain by structure-guided high-resolution serology. BMJ 373, n969 (2021). Details of purification procedures of the Bharat vaccine and the degree of cellular contaminants in the Sinopharm vaccine (which is less purified than that of Sinovac according to ref. Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in healthy adults aged 18-59 years: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 1/2 clinical trial. High-resolution structural analysis revealed that the purified protein is stably locked in the preferred pre-fusion conformation, in part as free trimers and in part as multitrimer complexes103. They use derivatives of different adenoviruses as vectors for reasons more specifically discussed in section Distinguishing features of vaccines independent of immunogen, as follows: CanSinohuman adenovirus 561, Janssen-Johnson&Johnsonhuman adenovirus 2619,62,63, Oxford-AstraZenecachimpanzee adenovirus Y2564,65,66; Gamaleya Institutehuman adenovirus 26 for the first vaccination and human adenovirus 5 for the second67,68. However, we would like to emphasize that there is an enormous pipeline of further developments (https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines), including subunit vaccines that contain only parts of the S protein, in some instances combined with components of other viral proteins. Ad26 vector-based COVID-19 vaccine encoding a prefusion-stabilized SARS-CoV-2 Spike immunogen induces potent humoral and cellular immune responses. the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Antiviral Res. What defines an efficacious COVID-19 vaccine? Science 369, 643 (2020). Plante, J. Blumenthal, K. G. et al. Sci. Neutralising antibody activity against SARS-CoV-2 VOCs B.1.617.2 and B.1.351 by BNT162b2 vaccination. Article They are known to infect the neurological, respiratory, enteric, and hepatic systems. Ongoing global and regional adaptive evolution of SARS-CoV-2. & Fox, G. J. Madhi, S. A. et al. Preprint at https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.04.14.439844v1 (2021). For delivery, the RNA vaccines are formulated as complexes with specific lipids in the form of lipid nanoparticles (LNP), which not only provide protection from RNA degradation in tissues but also facilitate cellular uptake and release into the cytoplasm for RNA translation (Fig. -Coronaviruses use lysosomes for egress instead of the biosynthetic secretory pathway. Ultrapotent human antibodies protect against SARS-CoV-2 challenge via multiple mechanisms. Shimizu, K., Sakurai, F., Machitani, M., Katayama, K. & Mizuguchi, H. Quantitative analysis of the leaky expression of adenovirus genes in cells transduced with a replication-incompetent adenovirus vector.

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